Instructional Design
What is Instructional Design and Why is it Important?
Instructional Design principles will greatly help you design a class that is much more AI-proof. The focus of Instructional Design principles is to design an intuitive class that uses a great deal of formative assessments that use higher level learning skills (see descriptions below). When you design your class with peer reviews, have your students apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate while they are creating a project, they are less able to use AI and are involved in a deeper learning experience.
Let's briefly take a minute to learn about Instructional Design and Learning Theory.
Instructional Design
According to the Instructional Design Central (IDC) website (Links to an external site), instructional design is the systematic process in which instructional materials are designed, developed, and delivered.
The terms instructional design, instructional technology, learning experience (LX) design, educational technology, curriculum design, and instructional systems design (ISD), are often used interchangeably.
Instructional Designer
An instructional designer is someone who creates and delivers educational training materials (e.g., eLearning courses, videos, manuals, handouts, etc.) for businesses, higher educational institutions, and other organizations.
What is an Instructional Design Model?
Instructional design models help instructional designers to make sense of abstract learning theory and enable real world application. An instructional design model provides structure and meaning to an instructional design problem. Many of them have common instructional design principles and patterns.
Next we will cover the most common models that are used to design learning experiences, courses, and instructional content.
ADDIE Model
The ADDIE Model
was first created for the U.S. Military during the 1970s by Florida State University. ADDIE is an acronym for a five-phase course development process. The ADDIE Model generally consists of five interrelated phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. The ADDIE Model represents a flexible guideline for building effective training and instructional materials. See each of the phases below:
Analysis
In the analysis phase of the ADDIE Model the instructional problem is identified. The instructional goals, success metrics, and overall objectives are also established. Information regarding the learner such as the learning environment, preferences, demographics, and existing knowledge and skills are also identified during this phase.
Design
The design phase of the ADDIE Model nails down learning objectives, instructional methods and activities, storyboards, content, subject matter knowledge, lesson outlines, and media assets.
Development
The development phase of the ADDIE Model is where instructional designers develop the content and learning interactions outlined in the design phase. During this phase, content is written and graphics, audio, and photography are also produced and assembled.
Implementation
During the implementation part of the ADDIE Model, the instructional designer delivers the content and materials to Learning Management Systems (LMS) or directly to the trainer for live training events. The instructional designer also provides training needed to trainers, facilitators, SME's or instructors.
Evaluation
During the evaluation phase of the ADDIE Model, the instructional designer determines what success will look like and how it will be measured. Often times, the evaluation consists of two phases: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is iterative and is done throughout the design and development processes. This occurs all throughout the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests that are done after the training materials are delivered. The results from these test help to inform the instructional designer and stake holders on whether or not the training accomplished its original goals outlined in the analysis phase.
SAM Model
Successive Approximation Model
"SAM is a different approach to the development of instructional design products that addresses the performance need through iterations, repeated small steps, rather than with perfectly executed giant steps. SAM challenges the notion of moving through a linear process (like ADDIE) from Analysis to Evaluation as an effective strategy for designing learning events intending to produce greater performance. SAM addresses the roadblocks we all face (product quality, meeting timelines and budgets, and managing SMEs). Most importantly, SAM is an agile e-learning development process built specifically for the creation of performance-driven learning. Below are the core phases:
Preparation:
Instead of starting with a long, drawn-out evaluation of the existing or “needed” content, SAM starts with the preparation phase—where you gather information and get all the background knowledge. This is intended to be a very quick phase.
Iterative Design:
This phase begins with the Savvy Start, the initial collaborative brainstorming meeting that establishes the foundation for a successful project. The Savvy Start focuses primarily on performance and will serve as the project kickoff meeting and the main environment for all project team members to converse. Throughout the Savvy Start and the Iterative Design Phase, your team will be rotating through design, prototype, and review.
Iterative Development:
Much like the Iterative Design Phase, in the Iterative Development Phase your team will rotate through development, implementation, and evaluation. You’ll start with your design proof, moving to Alpha and Beta, before finally rolling out the Gold. As the instructional product is being developed, you continually analyze and evaluate, so that at any point if a change needs to occur, it can happen quickly and limit any risk of the project moving out of budget or time."
Source: www.alleninteractions.com
Blooms Taxonomy
History
"In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom found that over 95 % of the test questions students encounter require them to think only at the lowest possible level...the recall of information.
Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. Verb examples that represent intellectual activity on each level are listed here.
Bloom's Taxonomy
Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.
Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate,
Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.
Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.
Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.
Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate."
"During the 1990's a new group of cognitive psychologists, lead by Lorin Anderson (a former student of Bloom), updated the taxonomy to reflect relevance to 21st century work. The new taxonomy includes a higher level cognitive performance titled 'Create.'" Source: www.celt.iastate.edu/
When designing for AI, it's important to keep your assignments in those Higher Order Thinking Skills of Evaluation, Synthesis, Analysis, and Application.
Learning Theory
Learning Theory in Instructional Design
Learning theory plays a large part in Instructional Design. The basis for instructional design and technology lies in theory. There are three learning theories that influence instructional design models today; Cognitivism, Constructivism, and Behaviorism. These theories inform the application of instructional design through models.
Please use the tabs below to read about each learning theory:
Cognitivism
COGNITIVISM LEARNING THEORY
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focuses on the inner activity and mental process of the mind. According to Richey, Klein, & Tracey, "The ways that learners process and apply information changes one’s thoughts and internal mental structures" [2]. This theory uses the analogy of comparing the human mind to a computer. Check out this link for a simple description of cognitivism.
If you choose to design from a cognitive perspective, it is important to understand the implications of cognitivism on design, and how they impact you as a designer. Here are a few implications of cognitivism on design.
Learners process, store, and retrieve information
Connect new information to schema, schematic organization
Information processing model
Short and long-term memory, storage, and retrieval
Meaningful information is easier to learn
Chunking
Mnemonics, advanced organizers
Short, focused lessons with balance of visuals and graphics
Remove all distractions and irrelevant information
Practice with corrective feedback
Ertmer & Newby advise Instructional Designers implementing a cognitive approach to "examine the learner to determine how to design instruction so that it can be readily assimilated (i.e., What are the learner’s existing mental structures?)" [1]. Completing a learning analysis will give many details that can provide a framework for instruction, such as prior knowledge and schema. According to Mergel, "The influence of cognitive science in Instructional Design is evidenced by the use of advanced organizers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts, and the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex" [3]. These techniques will be helpful when utilizing the cognitive approach to design. Another aspect of cognitive theory to consider when relating to Instructional Design is the cognitive task analysis. Rather than focusing on measurable tasks, the Instructional Designer can measure non-observable and mental tasks that will be taught, such as decision making and problem-solving.
Behaviorism
BEHAVIORISM LEARNING THEORY
Behaviorism is a learning theory that considers learning as a process of reacting to external stimuli, focusing on measurable behaviors. Behaviorists view learners as passive participants and consider learning as an acquisition of new behavior. Desired behaviors can be elicited by either classical or operant conditioning. Classical conditioning occurs when a response is elicited to natural stimuli, such as Pavlov and his salivating dogs. The smell of food creates a natural response and triggers salivation. Operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.
Operant conditioning controls behavior through positive and negative reinforcement. A classic example of operant conditioning is B.F Skinner and his Skinner box. The rat ‘learned’ to press the lever and was rewarded with food. The reward strengthened the behavior. Another example of positive reinforcement can be easily seen in elementary school. Many times, students are ‘rewarded’ for positive behavior. The goal is to reinforce the ‘good’ behavior at school. Watch this video for a simple explanation of behaviorism.
Behaviorism has greatly influenced the field of Instructional Design. The theory itself has expanded well beyond Skinner’s box and Pavlov’s dogs. The following are examples of how behaviorism has impacted the field of Instructional Design:
Teacher-led and designed learning
Repetition, drills, and practice
Learning is measurable and can be defined by learning objectives
Question-answer (stimulus-response) with instant feedback
External motivation
Chaining-predetermined steps to be followed
Learners are assessed primarily through testing
Instructional cues
If an Instructional Designer chooses to utilize a behavioristic approach, it is important to understand the implications of the theory and how the design process is influenced. Using a behavioristic approach, the designer should analyze the situation and develop clear and precise learning objectives. Ertmer & Newby suggest using a "pre-assessment of students to determine where instruction should begin [learner analysis] while placing an emphasis on mastering early steps before progressing to more complex levels of performance [sequencing of instructional presentation, mastery learning]" [1]. The tasks given should be manageable, created, and directed by the designer. The evaluation should consist of measuring the objectives, whether they were met or not. This approach works well when there are specific goals to meet, and a clear path to achieve them.
Constructivism
CONSTRUCTIVISM LEARNING THEORY
Constructivism is a learning theory that focuses on inquiry-based, active learning, in which learners individually construct knowledge based on their past and present experiences. Sharing multiple perspectives is a key component of constructivism, as collaboration is essential and ignites conceptual growth. The development of self-knowledge is constantly changing, and self-reflection is key. The focus is on learning that is relevant and realistic, and constantly evolving through a facilitated environment. Learners are actively thinking, analyzing, synthesizing, and collaborating. Learning is non-linear, open-ended with unestablished goals. Evaluation of learning using this theory is difficult, and not easily measured. Each learner is different and should be evaluated as such. For a simple, easy to understand the definition of constructivism, you may want to watch the following video.
Constructivism has changed the way we view and approach Instructional Design. This theory has impacted Instructional Design, and it is essential to understand its influence on design practice. Listed below are concepts in this theory that influence Instructional Design:
No standardized curriculum
Teacher serves as a facilitator of learning
Relevant and realistic, authentic learning
Collaboration, cooperation, and a multi-perspective approach
Previous experiences and knowledge contribute
Active learning- question and reflect
Guidelines, not steps
Cognitive apprenticeship
Project Based Learning
Evaluation is goal free and depends on learner -open-ended
In order to facilitate a constructivist approach, it is essential to understand your learners and their needs as the content is determined by the learner. Ertmer & Newby recommend placing an "emphasis on the identification of the context in which the skills will be learned and subsequently applied [anchoring learning in meaningful contexts] while allowing learner control and the capability of the learner to manipulate information [actively using what is learned]" [1]. Constructivism empowers the learner, promoting collaboration while fostering real-life problem-solving skills. This approach is open-ended; therefore, it is necessary for the Instructional Designer to avoid a prescribed curriculum.